Original Articles Open access

Mycotoxins in European Union Regulations (2023-2025)

Authors

Published
12 November 2025
Section
Original Articles
DOI
10.4081/ijfs.2025.14096

Abstract

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi, mainly from the Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium genera, under specific temperature and humidity conditions. They can enter the food chain through contaminated plant-based foods (e.g., cereals, legumes, dried fruits, herbs) and animal-derived products (e.g., meat, dairy, eggs, honey) due to contaminated feed. This study analyzes the current European Union regulatory framework for mycotoxins, focusing on Regulation (EU) No. 915/2023 and subsequent amendments [Regulations (EU) No. 1022/2024, 1038/2024, 1756/2024, 1808/2024, 89/2025, and 691/2025] that define maximum levels and sampling procedures. Regulated mycotoxins include aflatoxins (B1, total B1+B2+G1+G2, M1), ochratoxin A, patulin, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, citrinin, and Claviceps spp. alkaloids. The study highlights key updates in legislation, their impact on monitoring and compliance, and the need for ongoing research in the context of climate change to safeguard food safety and protect vulnerable populations.

Keywords

References

  1. Awuchi CG, Ondari EN, Nwozo S, Odongo GA, Eseoghene IJ, Twinomuhwezi H, Ogbonna CU, Upadhyay AK, Adeleye AO, Okpala COR, 2022. Mycotoxins’ toxicological mechanisms involving humans, livestock and their associated health concerns: a review. Toxins 14:167. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14030167
  2. Coppock RW, Christian RG, 2025. Aflatoxins. In: Gupta RC, ed. Veterinary toxicology. Academic Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, pp 1009-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-29007-7.00043-1
  3. European Commission, 2006a. Regulation of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs, 1881/2006/EC. In: Official Journal, L 364/5, 20/12/2006.
  4. European Commission, 2006b. Regulation of 23 February 2006 laying down the methods of sampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs, 401/2006/EC. In: Official Journal, L 70/12, 9/03/2006.
  5. European Commission, 2023. Regulation of 25 April 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006, 915/2023/EU. In: Official Journal, L 119/103, 5/05/2023.
  6. European Commission, 2024a. Regulation of 8 April 2024 amending Regulation (EU) 2023/915 as regards maximum levels of deoxynivalenol in food, 1022/2024/EU. In: Official Journal, L series, 9/04/2024.
  7. European Commission, 2024b. Regulation of 9 April 2024 amending Regulation (EU) 2023/915 as regards maximum levels of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in food, 1038/2024/EU. In: Official Journal, L series, 10/04/2024.
  8. European Commission, 2024c. Regulation of 25 June 2024 amending and correcting Regulation (EU) 2023/915 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food, 1756/2024/EU. In: Official Journal, L series, 26/06/2024.
  9. European Commission, 2024d. Regulation of 1 July 2024 amending Regulation (EU) 2023/915 as regards the application date of lower maximum levels for ergot sclerotia and ergot alkaloids in food, 1808/2024/EU. In: Official Journal, L series, 2/07/2024.
  10. European Commission, 2025a. Implementing Regulation of 20 January 2025 authorising the placing on the market of UV-treated powder of whole Tenebrio molitor larvae (yellow mealworm) as a novel food and amending Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470, 89/2025/EU. In: Official Journal, L series, 21/01/2025.
  11. European Commission, 2025b. Implementing Regulation of 9 April 2025 authorising the placing on the market of vitamin D2 mushroom powder as a novel food and amending Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470, 691/2025/EU. In: Official Journal, L series, 10/04/2025.
  12. IARC, 2012. Aflatoxins. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. 100:225-41.
  13. Khan R, 2024. Mycotoxins in food: occurrence, health implications, and control strategies-a comprehensive review. Toxicon 248:108038. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2024.108038
  14. Li K, Cai H, Luo B, Duan S, Yang J, Zhang N, He Y, Wu A, Liu H, 2025. Recent progress of mycotoxin in various food products—human exposure and health risk assessment. Foods 14:865. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14050865
  15. Mafe AN, Büsselberg D, 2024. Mycotoxins in food: cancer risks and strategies for control. Foods 13:3502. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13213502
  16. Magembe KS, 2025. Mycotoxins impact in food, human and animal health with special reference to aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol: A 13. Eur J Res Med Sci 10:1-36.
  17. Mihalache OA, De Boevre M, Dellafiora L, De Saeger S, Moretti A, Pinson-Gadais L, Ponts N, Richard-Forget F, Susca A, Dall’Asta C, 2023. The occurrence of non-regulated mycotoxins in foods: a systematic review. Toxins 15:583. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15090583
  18. Pinton P, Terciolo C, Payros D, Oswald IP, 2025. Mycotoxins hazard: the European view. Curr Opin Food Sci 63:101306. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2025.101306
  19. Williams SL, Toda M, Chiller T, Brunkard JM, Litvintseva AP, 2024. Effects of climate change on fungal infections. PLoS Pathog 30:e1012219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1012219

Metrics

Citations and online attention from Dimensions, Altmetric and PlumX.

PlumX Metrics

License

Copyright (c) 2025 the Author(s)

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

PAGEPress has chosen to apply the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0) to all manuscripts to be published.