Reviews
Vol. 13 No. 4 (2024)
https://doi.org/10.4081/ijfs.2024.12904
Comprehensive review of salmonellosis: current status of the disease and future perspectives
Publisher's note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Received: 6 August 2024
Accepted: 16 September 2024
Published: 1 October 2024
Accepted: 16 September 2024
Published: 1 October 2024
1467
Views
416
Downloads
25
HTML
Salmonellosis is a significant public health concern in Saudi Arabia, with various serovars of Salmonella causing outbreaks and infections. The disease’s clinical presentation includes common symptoms such as diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps, with potential complications in severe cases. Diagnosing salmonellosis in Saudi Arabia involves a combination of traditional laboratory methods and molecular techniques to ensure accurate identification and treatment. Preventive measures and control strategies, including vaccination campaigns, food safety protocols, and public health education, have been implemented to mitigate the spread of salmonellosis. Challenges such as antimicrobial resistance, limited healthcare resources in rural areas, and underreporting of cases persist and impact the effective management of the disease. Recommendations for improving salmonellosis prevention and management include enhancing surveillance, implementing public health education campaigns, strengthening food safety regulations, promoting antimicrobial stewardship, investing in research, improving healthcare infrastructure, and fostering collaboration and coordination between sectors. Implementing these recommendations can help Saudi Arabia effectively address the challenges posed by salmonellosis and reduce the burden of the disease on public health.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
Abalkhail A, Kabir R, Elmosaad YM, Alwashmi AS, Alhumaydhi FA, Alslamah T, Almoammar KA, Alsalamah YA, Mahmud I, 2022. Needle-stick and sharp injuries among hospital healthcare workers in Saudi Arabia: a cross-sectional survey. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19:6342.
Abu-Amero KK, 2002. Potential for the Use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in the detection and identification of mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in sputum samples. Molecular Biology Today 3:39-42.
Al-Ahmadi KS, el Bushra HE, al-Zahrani AS, 1998. An outbreak of food poisoning associated with restaurant-made mayonnaise in Abha, Saudi Arabia. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res 16:201-4.
Al Kraiem AA, Yang G, Al kraiem F, Chen T, 2018. Challenges associated with ceftriaxone resistance in Salmonella. Front Life Sci 11:26-34.
Al Kraiem AA, Zeng Y, Huo X, Yang K, Al Kraiem F, Qin J, Cui Y, Kan B, Yan M, Yang G, 2019. Identification of Salmonella Bredeney resistant to third-generation cephalosporins in Saudi Arabia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 9:390.
Al Shareef HJ, Al Harbi A, Alatawi Y, Aljabri A, Al-Ghanmi MA, Alzahrani MS, Algarni MA, Khobrani A, Haseeb A, AlSenani F, Elrggal ME, 2022. Evaluate the effectiveness of outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy (OPAT) program in Saudi Arabia: a retrospective study. Antibiotics 11:441.
Al-Anezi FM, Alrajhi S, Al-Anezi NM, Alabbadi DM, Almana R, 2020. A review of healthcare system in Saudi Arabia. Available from: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/9277812/.
Alarjani KM, Elkhadragy MF, Al-Masoud AH, Yehia HM, 2021. Detection of Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella typhimurium in chicken using PCR for virulence factor hipO and inv A genes (Saudi Arabia). Biosci Rep 41:BSR20211790.
Alghoribi MF, Doumith M, Alrodayyan M, Al Zayer M, Köster WL, Muhanna A, Aljohani SM, Balkhy HH, Desin TS, 2019. S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium harboring SPI-1 and SPI-2 are the predominant serotypes associated with human salmonellosis in Saudi Arabia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 9:187.
Alharbi NA, Alsaeed TS, Aljohany AS, Alwehaibi KK, Almasaad MA, Alotaibi RM, Alotaibi BJ, Alamoudi EA, 2021. Extra-intestinal salmonellosis in a tertiary care center in Saudi Arabia. Sudan J Paediatr 21:152-61.
Alharbi S, Abdel-Ghaffar MH, Kadher NR, 2019. Isolation and identification of pathogenic bacteria from ready-to-eat fast foods in Al-Quwayiyah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Afric J Food Agric Nutr Dev 19:14739-51.
Al-Harbi S, Al-Doweriej A, Aljaser M, Abdulrahman S, Alnuwais OS, Nader SM, Lulu H, Abdel-Moneim AS, Hussein MS, Abd-El-Rahman AH, Kasem S, 2023. Occupational health hazards among veterinarians in Saudi Arabia. Cureus 15: e47822.
Alhumaid NK, Alajmi AM, Alosaimi NF, Alotaibi M, Almangour TA, Nassar MS, Memish ZA, Binjomah AZ, Al-Jedai A, Almutairi AS, 2023. Reported Bacterial infectious diseases in saudi arabia: overview and recent advances. Available from: https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-3351846/latest.
Ali MD, Patel M, Banu N, Ahmad A, Hassan YA, 2021. Drug utilization pattern and cost-effectiveness analysis of five most common antibiotics used in Saudi Arabia. J Pharmaceutical Health Services Res 12:242-6.
Aljindan RY, Hussein NE, Khoudair HA, Shaikh AY, Hassan HA, Alabdulqader NA, Shorman MA, Abdalhamid BA, 2018. First description of plasmid mediated quinolone resistance genes in salmonella isolates from Saudi hospitals. Saudi Med J 39:685-9.
Aljoudi AS, Al-Mazam A, Choudhry AJ, 2010. Outbreak of food borne Salmonella among guests of a wedding ceremony: the role of cultural factors. J Family Community Med 17:29-34.
Allaart J, Roubos-van den Hil P, D’heer B, Smits C, 2017. New innovative feeding strategy for reduction of Salmonella in swine. Available from: https://dr.lib.iastate.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/2c7aa2df-ff8a-433b-954f-819fffdf2e2e/content.
Alqahtani AH, Alsaleh S, Almana A, 2021. Evaluation of the cold chain expanded program on immunization at governmental and private health care centers in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia. J Pharmaceutical Res Int 33:225-36.
Al‐Rifai RH, Chaabna K, Denagamage T, Alali WQ, 2019. Prevalence of enteric non‐typhoidal Salmonella in humans in the Middle East and North Africa: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Zoonoses Public Health 66:701-28.
Alrobaish WS, Vlerick P, Luning PA, Jacxsens L, 2021. Food safety governance in Saudi Arabia: challenges in control of imported food. J Food Sci 86:16-30.
Alrowaili GZ, Dar UF, Bandy AH, 2019. May we improve vaccine timeliness among children? A cross sectional survey in northern Saudi Arabia. J Family Community Med 26:113-7.
Al-Sarraj F, Al-Seghayer M, 2021. The outbreak of foodborne disease by pathogenic Enterobacteriaceae antimicrobial resistance-a review. Asian Food Sci J 20:91-9.
Alsayeqh AF, 2020. Salmonellosis in Saudi Arabia; an underestimated disease? AJVS 67:30-8.
Alsayeqh AF, 2023. Epidemiological study of human brucellosis in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; pre-and during COVID-19 pandemic. Slov Vet Res 60:405-12.
Alslamah T, Abalkhail A, 2022. The national strategies for and challenges in infection prevention and control of the healthcare system in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (review study). Vaccines 10:1302.
Alsubaie S, Alrabiaah A, 2020. Clinical characteristics, acute complications, and neurologic outcomes of Salmonella Meningitis in Saudi infants and children. J Pediatric Infect Dis 15:031-8.
Al-Wohaib FA, Al-Sharif I, Al-Zain H, Murad D, Al-Harbi L, Al-Mozaini M, 2022. Evaluation of two molecular detection platforms for gastroenteritis pathogens in treated sewage water in the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. Sci Rep 12:21744.
Alzahrani SG, 2022. Evaluation of health promoting schools programme in Saudi Arabia. J Health Med Sci 5:89-96.
Badahdah SA, Aldagal MM, 2018. Antibiotic resistance in salmonella spp. isolated from local chickens in Saudi Arabia. Int J Food Sci Nutr Eng 8:127-30.
Badasyan IE, Nushikyan RV, 2023. Investigation of salmonellosis during and after the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2023). Res Biotechnol Environ Sci 2:30-4.
Berrocal Martínez MT, Ruiz-Juárez D, Gutiérrez-Rojas M, Olivares-Orozco J, 2023. Comportamiento epidemiológico de Salmonella sp. En alimentos de origen vegetal por región intercontinental. Rev Mex Cienc Agríc 14:109-21.
Boichenko MN, Zverev VV, Volchkova EV,2017. Interaction of Salmonella with host organism. J Microbiol EpidemioL Immunobiol 94:91-100.
Bonardi S, 2017. Salmonella in the pork production chain and its impact on human health in the European Union. Epidemiol Infect 145:1513-26.
Costa LF, Paixão TA, Tsolis RM, Bäumler AJ, Santos RL, 2012. Salmonellosis in cattle: advantages of being an experimental model. Res Vet Sci 93:1-6.
Crump JA, Nyirenda TS, Kalonji LM, Phoba MF, Tack B, Platts-Mills JA, Gordon MA, Kariuki SM, 2023. Nontyphoidal Salmonella invasive disease: challenges and solutions. Open Forum Infect Dis 10:S32-7.
Crump JA, Sjölund-Karlsson M, Gordon MA, Parry CM, 2015. Epidemiology, clinical presentation, laboratory diagnosis, antimicrobial resistance, and antimicrobial management of invasive Salmonella infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 28:901-37.
Djeghout B, Ayachi A, Paglietti B, Langridge GC, Rubino S, 2017. An Algerian perspective on non-typhoidal Salmonella infection. J Infect Dev Ctries 11:583-90.
Dróżdż M, Małaszczuk M, Paluch E, Pawlak A, 2021. Zoonotic potential and prevalence of Salmonella serovars isolated from pets. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 11:1975530.
Elbehiry A, Abalkhail A, Marzouk E, Elmanssury AE, Almuzaini AM, Alfheeaid H, Alshahrani MT, Huraysh N, Ibrahem M, Alzaben F, Alanazi F, Alzaben M, Anagreyyah SA, Bayameen AM, Draz A, Abu-Okail A, 2023. An Overview of the public health challenges in diagnosing and controlling human foodborne pathogens. Vaccines 11:725.
El-Demerdash AS, Said MA, Abdelhamid AG, 2021. Prevalence and Antimicrobial resistance profile of different Salmonella serovars isolated from food products of animal origin. Egypt Acad J Biolog Sci 13:11-16.
Ferrari RG, Rosario DKA, Cunha-Neto A, Mano SB, Figueiredo EES, Conte-Junior CA, 2019. Worldwide epidemiology of Salmonella serovars in animal-based foods: a meta-analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 85:e00591-19.
Finstad S, O’Bryan CA, Marcy JA, Crandall PG, Ricke SC, 2012. Salmonella and broiler processing in the United States: Relationship to foodborne salmonellosis. Food Res Int 45:789-94.
Gallichan S, Perez-Sepulveda BM, Feasey NA, Hinton JC, Thomas J, Smith AM, 2022. Multiplex PCR assay for clade-typing Salmonella Enteritidis. Microbiol Spectr 10:e0318222.
Giannella RA, 1996. Salmonella. In: Baron S, ed. Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
Greear JA, Steele AD, Garrett DO, 2023. Achieving impact: charting the course to meet the challenges ahead at the 12th International Conference on Typhoid and Other Invasive Salmonelloses. Open Forum Infect Dis 10:S1-5.
Gupta SK, Al Khaleefah FK, Al Harbi IS, Ahmed F, Jabar S, Torre MA, Mathias SL, 2018. An intervention study for the prevention and control of health care-associated infection in the critical cares area of a tertiary care hospital in Saudi Arabia. Indian J Crit Care Med 22:858-61.
Gurajala S, 2023. Healthcare system in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: an expat doctor’s perspective. Cureus 15:e38806.
Gutema FD, Agga GE, Abdi RD, De Zutter L, Duchateau L, Gabriël S, 2019. Prevalence and serotype diversity of Salmonella in apparently healthy cattle: systematic review and meta-analysis of published studies, 2000-2017. Front Vet Sci 6:102.
Hamilton RD, Hulsebus HJ, Akbar S, Gray JT, 2012. Increased resistance to multiple antimicrobials and altered resistance gene expression in CMY-2-positive Salmonella enterica following a simulated patient treatment with ceftriaxone. Appl Environ Microbiol 78:8062-6.
Haramain SE, Yagoub SO, Osman AA, 2021. Antibiotic susceptibility of Salmonella spp isolated from fresh leafy vegetables samples by using culture and polymerase chain reaction methods. Eur J Biol Biotechnol 2:41-5.
Iyer A, Albaik M, Al-Ghamdi M, Kumosani T, 2014. Salmonella as a food borne pathogen in Saudi Arabia: a minireview. Wulfenia J 21:204-12.
Jajere SM, 2019. A review of Salmonella enterica with particular focus on the pathogenicity and virulence factors, host specificity and antimicrobial resistance including multidrug resistance. Vet World 12:504-21.
Javed NB, AL‐Mohaithef M, 2023. Prevalence of food thermometers usage and temperature control in restaurants in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. Food Sci Nutr 11:3246-54.
Khan HA, Almalki MH, Felemban R, Elbanna K, Abulreesh HH, 2022. Antibiotic-resistant salmonellae in pet reptiles in Saudi Arabia. MIR J 9:31-6.
Khateb AM, Alkhaibari SA, 2023. Cross-sectional investigation of mycological diagnosis challenges in Saudi Arabia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 13:1203892.
Lauteri C, Maggio F, Serio A, Festino AR, Paparella A, Vergara A, 2022. Overcoming multidrug resistance in Salmonella spp. isolates obtained from the swine food chain by using essential oils: an in vitro study. Front Microbiol 12:808286.
Lenchenko EM, Lozovoy DA, Gavrilov VA, Gnezdilova LA, VN VNZ, Kuznetsov VL, Annikov VV, Medvedev IN, Petryaeva EV, 2019. Aspects of Salmonellosis pathogenesis using chicken models. Bali Med J 8:206-10.
Listorti V, Garcia-Vozmediano A, Pitti M, Maurella C, Adriano D, Ercolini C, Dellepiane M, Guardone L, Razzuoli E, 2022. Antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella strains isolated from human, wild boar, and environmental samples in 2018-2020 in the northwest of Italy. Pathogens 11:1446.
Malik GM, Al-Wabel AA, El Bagir Khalafalla Ahmed MM, Bilal NE, Shenoy A, Abdalla M, Mekki TE, 1993. Salmonella infections in Asir region, southern Saudi Arabia: expatriated implications. Ann Saudi Med 13:242-5.
McDermott PF, Tyson GH, Kabera C, Chen Y, Li C, Folster JP, Ayers SL, Lam C, Tate HP, Zhao S, 2016. Whole-genome sequencing for detecting antimicrobial resistance in nontyphoidal Salmonella. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 60:5515-20.
Mellou K, Sideroglou T, Kallimani A, Potamiti-Komi M, Pervanidou D, Lillakou E, Georgakopoulou T, Mandilara G, Lambiri M, Vatopoulos A, Hadjichristodoulou C, 2013. Evaluation of underreporting of salmonellosis and shigellosis hospitalised cases in Greece, 2011: results of a capture-recapture study and a hospital registry review. BMC Public Health 13:875.
Mir MA, Kumawat M, Nabi B, Kumar M, 2022. Chapter 8 - combinatorial approach to combat drug resistance in human pathogenic bacteria. In Mir MA, ed. Human pathogenic microbes. Academic Press, Cambridge, MA, USA; pp 187-206.
Montoro-Dasi L, Lorenzo-Rebenaque L, Marco-Fuertes A, Vega S, Marin C, 2023. Holistic strategies to control Salmonella Infantis: an emerging challenge in the European broiler sector. Microorganisms 11:1765.
Morgado ME, Jiang C, Zambrana J, Upperman CR, Mitchell C, Boyle M, Sapkota AR, Sapkota A, 2021. Climate change, extreme events, and increased risk of salmonellosis: Foodborne diseases active surveillance network (FoodNet), 2004-2014. Environ Health 20:105.
Murphy D, Oshin F, 2015. Reptile-associated salmonellosis in children aged under 5 years in south west England. Arch Dis Child 100:364-5.
Muteeb G, Rehman MT, Shahwan M, Aatif M, 2023. Origin of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance, and their impacts on drug development: a narrative review. Pharmaceuticals 16:1615.
Ndako JA, Owolabi AO, Dojumo VT, Fajobi VO, Owolabi IJ, Junaid SA, 2023. Serodiagnosis of Samonella infection using a logistic regression model. Available from: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/10124490/.
Ohoud A, 2022. Letter from Saudi Arabia. Respirology 27:314-5.
Ohud M, 2012. Detection of Salmonella strains in clinical samples from Saudi Arabia by invA and hilA polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays. Afric J Microbiol Res 6.
Rahman MdM, Alam Tumpa MstA, Zehravi M, Sarker MdT, Yamin Md, Islam MdR, Harun-Or-Rashid Md, Ahmed M, Ramproshad S, Mondal B, Dey A, Damiri F, Berrada M, Rahman MdH, Cavalu S, 2022. An overview of antimicrobial stewardship optimization: the use of antibiotics in humans and animals to prevent resistance. Antibiotics 11:667.
Revolledo L, Ferreira AJP, 2012. Current perspectives in avian salmonellosis: vaccines and immune mechanisms of protection. J Appl Poultry Res 21:418-31.
Saeed A, Saeed AB, AlAhmri FA, 2023. Saudi Arabia health systems: challenging and future transformations with artificial intelligence. Cureus 15:e37826.
Salzman NH, Ghosh D, Huttner KM, Paterson Y, Bevins CL, 2003. Protection against enteric salmonellosis in transgenic mice expressing a human intestinal defensin. Nature 422:522-6.
Sauteur PMM, Relly C, Hug M, Wittenbrink MM, Berger C, 2013. Risk factors for invasive reptile-associated salmonellosis in children. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 13:419-21.
Sharaheeli J, Alibrahim B, Abd-Ellatif EE, 2022. Evaluation of surveillance and response systems of foodborne diseases and outbreaks in 2015 at the ministry of health level in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia. J Health Stat Rep 5:2-7.
Shim M, Hong S, Seok MJ, Kim HB, 2016. Salmonellosis in swine: clinical perspectives. Korean J Agric Sci 43:320-9.
Staff M, Musto J, Hogg G, Janssen M, Rose K, 2012. Salmonellosis outbreak traced to playground sand, Australia, 2007-2009. Emerg Infect Dis 18:1159-62.
Suppamutharwyam M, Radhakrishnan AP, 2022. An unusual case of deep vein thrombosis and mycotic aneurysms secondary to Salmonella Bacteraemia. Case Rep Clin Med 11:37-47.
Teklemariam AD, Al-Hindi RR, Albiheyri RS, Alharbi MG, Alghamdi MA, Filimban AA, Al Mutiri AS, Al-Alyani AM, Alseghayer MS, Almaneea AM, 2023. Human salmonellosis: a continuous global threat in the farm-to-fork food safety continuum. Foods 12:1756.
Teresa TRL, Nohemi GM, Carlos RLJ, 2015. Knowledge of mechanisms of transmission and complications of salmonellosis in over 18 years of Pachuca, Hidalgo, Mexico. Biomed Pharmacol J 7:111-6.
Tork S, Alfattani SQ, Al-Kahtani TM, Al-Seeni MN, Aly MM, 2017. Molecular characterization of some food borne pathogens in soft cheese samples collected from Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Wilson M, Wilson PJK, 2021. Gastroenteritis due to Salmonella. In: Wilson M, Wilson PJK, eds. Close encounters of the microbial kind (pp. 451–461). Springer International Publishing, Springer, Cham.
Zamora-Sanabria R, Alvarado AM, Zamora-Sanabria R, Alvarado AM, 2017. Preharvest Salmonella risk contamination and the control strategies. In: Mares M. Current topics in Salmonella and salmonellosis. IntechOpen, London, UK.
Zhou K, Sun L, Zhang X, Xu X, Mi K, Ma W, Zhang L, Huang L, 2023. Salmonella antimicrobials inherited and the non-inherited resistance: mechanisms and alternative therapeutic strategies. Front Microbiol 14:1176317.
Zhuang L, Gong J, Shen Q, Yang J, Song C, Liu Q, Zhao B, Zhang Y, Zhu M, 2023. Advances in detection methods for viable Salmonella spp.: current applications and challenges. Anal Sci 39:1643-60.
How to Cite
1.
Comprehensive review of salmonellosis: current status of the disease and future perspectives. Ital J Food Safety [Internet]. 2024 Oct. 1 [cited 2026 Mar. 12];13(4). Available from: https://www.pagepressjournals.org/ijfs/article/view/12904
Copyright (c) 2024 the Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
PAGEPress has chosen to apply the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0) to all manuscripts to be published.