From uterine mechanics to motor control: a personal perspective on biomechanics across scales

This paper offers a personal perspective on a lifetime of research in biomechanics, organized around the mechanical principles that connect muscle, joint, tissue, limb, and whole-body function. The narrative begins with uterine biomechanics during labor, where in-vivo strain measurements and shell modeling were used to examine contraction patterns, deformation, pacemaker activity, and the transition from near-isotropic to anisotropic behavior. It then turns to joint mechanics, including hip incongruity, acetabular contact pressure, implant fixation, knee arthroplasty, and the gliding index, followed by studies of rehabilitation biomechanics at the Loewenstein Rehabilitation Center. These sections examine gait recovery, stepping and jumping, postural control, bilateral force-platform measurements, and mathematical modeling of body sway across neurological, orthopedic and amputee populations. Subsequent sections address articular cartilage mechanics and cartilage tissue engineering, surgical modifications of the musculoskeletal system, impact loading and fatigue in running, mechanical impedance as a task-dependent expression of motor control, and Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) for rehabilitation. The FES work includes muscle recruitment, fatigue monitoring using ³¹P magnetic resonance spectroscopy, fatigue modeling, EMG-based monitoring, hybrid activation and bioelectric field modeling. The final sections consider bone quality, osteoporosis, metastatic weakening, vertebral fragility, and biomechanical indeterminacy. Across these topics, the central theme is that biomechanics is most powerful when experiment, modeling, and clinical observation are integrated. The concluding section reflects on how indeterminacy, redundancy, adaptation, and structure-function relations unify seemingly diverse problems in biomechanics.

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93. Levy M, Kushnir T, Mizrahi J, Itzchak Y. In vivo P-31 NMR studies of paraplegic's muscles activated by functional electrical stimulation. Magn Reson Med 1993;29:53-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mrm.1910290111

94. Giat Y, Mizrahi J, Levy M. A musculo-tendon model of the fatigue profiles of paralyzed quadriceps muscle under FES. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1993;40:664-74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/10.237696

95. Giat Y, Mizrahi J, Levy M. A model of fatigue and recovery in paraplegic's quadriceps muscle when subjected to intermittent stimulation. J Biomech Eng 1996;118:357-66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2796018

96. Levin O, Mizrahi J. EMG and metabolic-based prediction of force in paralyzed quadriceps muscle under interrupted stimulation. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1999;7:301-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/86.788467

97. Minzly J, Mizrahi J, Hakim N, Liberson A. A stimulus artifact suppressor for EMG recording during FES by a constant current stimulator. Med Biol Eng Comput 1993;31:72-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02446897

98. Mizrahi J, Levy M, Ring H, et al. EMG as an indicator of fatigue of isometrically FES-activated paralyzed muscles. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1994;2:57-65. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/86.313147

99. Levin O, Mizrahi J, Isakov E. Transcutaneous FES of paralyzed quadriceps: is knee torque affected by unintended activation of the hamstrings? J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2000;10:47-58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1050-6411(99)00016-4

100. Liron-Keshet S, Tirosh E, Mizrahi J, et al. The effect of therapeutic electrical stimulation in children with diplegic cerebral palsy as measured by gait analysis. Basic Appl Myol 2001;11:127-32.

101. Katz A, Tirosh E, Marmur R, Mizrahi J. Enhancement of muscle activity by electrical stimulation in cerebral palsy: a case-control study. J Child Neurol 2008;23:259-67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073807308695

102. Langzam E, Nemirovsky Y, Isakov E, Mizrahi J. Partition between volitional and induced forces in electrically augmented dynamic muscle contractions. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2006;14:322-35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TNSRE.2006.881591

103. Langzam E, Nemirovsky Y, Isakov E, Mizrahi J. Muscle enhancement using closed-loop electrical stimulation: volitional versus induced torque. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2007;17:275-84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelekin.2006.03.001

104. Langzam E, Isakov E, Mizrahi J. Evaluation of methods for extraction of the volitional EMG in dynamic hybrid muscle activation. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2006;3:27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-0003-3-27

105. Livshitz L, Einziger P, Mizrahi J. Current distribution in skeletal muscle activated by FES: image-series formulation and isometric recruitment curve. Ann Biomed Eng 2000;28:1218-28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1114/1.1320842

106. Livshitz L, Einziger P, Mizrahi J. A model of finite electrodes in layered media: hybrid image series and moment method scheme. ACES J 2001;16:145-54.

107. Livshitz LM, Mizrahi J, Einziger PD. Interaction of array of finite electrodes with layered biological tissue: effect of electrode size and configuration. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2001;9:355-61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/7333.1000115

108. Einziger P, Livshitz L, Mizrahi J. Rigorous image series expansions of quasistatic Green's functions for regions with planar stratification. IEEE Trans Antennas Propag 2002;50:1813-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TAP.2002.807365

109. Livshitz LM, Einziger PD, Mizrahi J. Rigorous Green's function for transmembrane potential induced along a 3-D infinite cylindrical cell. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2002;49:1491-503. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.2002.805479

110. Einziger PD, Livshitz LM, Mizrahi J. Generalized cable equation model for myelinated nerve fiber. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2005;52:1632-42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.2005.856031

111. Leichter I, Weinreb A, Hazan G. On the effective attenuation coefficient of soft tissue in the presence of Compton scattering from bone: experiments on models. Phys Med Biol 1980;25:711. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/25/4/009

112. Mizrahi J, Margulies JY, Leichter I, Deutsch D. Fracture mechanics of the human femoral neck: effect of density of the cancellous core. J Biomed Eng 1984;6:56-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0141-5425(84)90011-6

113. Leichter I, Margulies JY, Weinreb A, et al. The relationship between bone density, mineral content and mechanical strength in the femoral neck. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1982;163:266-75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00003086-198203000-00041

114. Mizrahi J, Margulies JY, Leichter I, Deutsch D. The role of porosity in fracture initiation of the femoral neck. In: Menscel J, Robin GC, Makin M, Steinberg R, eds. Osteoporosis. London, UK: John Wiley and Sons; 1982. pp 181-8.

115. Leichter I, Margulies JY, Weinreb A, et al. Mechanical strength of femoral neck compared to bone density and bone mineral content. In: Menscel J, Robin GC, Makin M, Steinberg R, eds. Osteoporosis. London, UK: John Wiley and Sons; 1982. pp 166-73.

116. Mizrahi J, Silva MJ, Keaveny TH, et al. Finite element stress analysis of the normal and osteoporotic vertebral body. Spine 1993;18:2088-96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00007632-199310001-00028

117. Mizrahi J, Silva MJ, Hayes WC. Finite element stress analysis of simulated metastatic lesions in the lumbar vertebral body. J Biomed Eng 1992;14:467-75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0141-5425(92)90098-6

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